The Iron Age marked the last prehistoric period in Ireland. The transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age was slow and over a long period.
Iron Age Ireland Timeline
800-500 BC: Beginning of the Iron Age
The Iron Age in Ireland is often dated as 500 BC but archaeological finds, such as the Lackan spearhead, provide evidence of skillful ironmaking earlier than first thought. Carbon dated 800-675 BC, the spearhead was made by the same metal workers as the ones who were producing the gold and bronze objects synonymous with Ireland's Bronze Age. This would mark the first stage of the arrival of the Celts into Ireland.
500-300 BC: Early Iron Age
The period from 500 to 300 BC in Ireland, known as the Early Iron Age, marks a significant era in the island's prehistory coinciding with the arrival of Celtic cultural elements. While the exact timing and nature of Celtic migration or influence in Ireland remain debated, by this period, Ireland was experiencing significant cultural shifts that aligned with those seen in other Celtic regions of Europe.
Iron began replacing Bronze as the primary material for tools and weapons. Iron was more abundant and durable, which allowed for the production of more effective farming tools and stronger weapons, leading to advancements in agriculture and warfare.
Craftsmanship in metalwork reached new levels of sophistication, with artisans creating finely decorated items that were likely used by the elite. The influence of the La Tène art style began to appear, characterized by intricate designs in metalwork, pottery, and other artefacts.
Society during the Early Iron Age was organized into tribal groups, each led by chieftains or kings. These tribes were often in competition with each other, leading to the construction of fortified settlements, such as ringforts (raths) and crannogs (lake dwellings).
Burial practices also evolved, with evidence of both cremation and inhumation (burial of the body) found in various sites. Grave goods, often including weapons, jewellery, and other items, suggest beliefs in an afterlife and the importance of status even in death.
300-100 BC: Middle Iron Age
The period from 300 to 100 BC in Ireland, known as the Middle Iron Age. This era saw the continued influence of Celtic traditions, social structures, language, art, and the flourishing of La Tène artistic styles. The Petrie Crown and the Turoe Stone are among the notable artefacts from this era, showcasing the distinctive artistic achievements of the time.
Celtic tribes spread across Ireland, leading to the formation of larger, more complex tribal societies with chieftains or kings ruling over distinct territories. These leaders were often warrior elites who gained power through their ability to protect and lead their people.
The construction of fortified sites reflects the need to defend these societies from internal and external threats. Larger and more elaborate hillforts were built during this period. These hillforts were often located on strategic hilltops and served as centres of power, control, and refuge for larger communities or tribal groups.
100 BC-1 AD: Late Iron Age
The Late Iron Age saw the further consolidation of tribal kingdoms and regional powers. The political landscape was characterized by complex relationships between various tribes and chieftains. Key tribal groups such as the Ulaid in Ulster, the Connachta in the west, and the Laigin in the east were prominent.
The construction of hillforts continued and became more elaborate. These structures served as centres of political and economic power and provided protection for larger communities. Hillforts such as those at Tara (Co. Meath) and Dun Aonghasa (Co. Galway) played significant roles in regional politics and ceremonial activities.
The La Tène art style continued to dominate, characterized by intricate patterns and designs on metalwork, including weapons, jewellery, and ceremonial items. Artefacts such as the famous Broighter Hoard (Co. Derry), which contains exquisite gold objects, including a ceremonial boat highlights the high level of craftsmanship and the wealth of the elite.
Ritual practices continued to be central to Irish life, with sacred sites such as the Hill of Tara and Tlachtga (Hill of Ward) playing important roles in religious and ceremonial activities. These sites were associated with major festivals and rites, such as Samhain, which marked the end of the harvest season.
The economy remained largely agrarian, with the use of iron tools enhancing farming productivity. Cattle continued to be a major indicator of wealth and social status. Ireland maintained and expanded trade connections with neighboring regions, including Britain and continental Europe. The exchange of goods and materials facilitated cultural interactions and the flow of artistic and technological influences.
Although Ireland was never directly conquered by the Romans, there was indirect influence through trade and cultural exchange. Roman artefacts and luxury items have been found in Ireland, suggesting contact and the movement of goods across the Irish Sea.
The Late Iron Age was a period during which much of Ireland’s mythological and epic literature began to take shape. Stories about the Tuatha Dé Danann, Cú Chulainn, and other legendary figures were passed down orally and would later be recorded in medieval manuscripts.
1-400 AD: End of the Iron Age
Ireland continued to be divided into several tribal kingdoms, with notable groups such as the Ulaid (in Ulster), Connachta (in the west), and Laigin (in the east). The political landscape was marked by regional conflicts, alliances, and shifting power dynamics. Powerful chieftains and kings continued to exert influence over their territories. The consolidation of power within these tribes led to the formation of more complex social hierarchies and administrative structures.
Hillforts remained important centre's of power and control, while raths (ringforts) continued to be used as residential and defensive structures. The design of these forts evolved, with some becoming more elaborate and including features like multiple defensive ditches and banks. New fortified sites were constructed, reflecting the ongoing need for defense and control within tribal territories.
The La Tène artistic style persisted, with its distinctive patterns and designs evident in metalwork, pottery, and other artefacts. The late Iron Age saw a continuation of the intricate designs and high-quality craftsmanship that characterized earlier periods. Items such as brooches, torcs (neck rings), and weapons from this period demonstrate the continued importance of material culture and personal adornment.
Rituals and ceremonies continued at significant sites like Tara (Co. Meath), which was a major ceremonial centre. The Hill of Tara, for example, was associated with the High Kings of Ireland and was central to religious and political activities. Burial customs included both cremation and inhumation. Grave goods continued to be used to signify status and role in society, with high-status individuals being buried with elaborate items.
The end of the Iron Age marked the beginning of the early medieval period in Ireland. This transition involved the development of a new social and political order, influenced by both indigenous traditions and the new Christian religion. The period also saw the beginning of written records, with monastic communities starting to preserve and record Irish history, mythology, and literature. These records would later provide valuable insights into Ireland’s early medieval history.
Iron Age archaeological sites in Ireland
Archaeological sites from the Iron Age, which provide insights into the life, culture, and social structures of the period include:
Hill of Tara (Co. Meath) - One of the most important political and spiritual centers during the Iron Age. Tara was believed to be the seat of the High Kings of Ireland. The site includes several ancient monuments, such as the Lia Fáil (Stone of Destiny) and various ringforts, barrows, and burial mounds.
Navan Fort (Emain Macha) (Co. Armagh) - A major ceremonial site associated with the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology, particularly the tales of Cú Chulainn. The site includes a large circular enclosure and evidence of extensive ritual activities, including the possible use of a large wooden structure that was later burned and covered with stones.
Dun Aonghasa (Co. Galway) - A prehistoric fort located on the Aran Islands, offering insights into defensive structures during the Iron Age. The fort is perched on a cliff edge and consists of concentric stone walls and a chevaux-de-frise, a defensive feature made up of sharp stones.
Rathgall Hillfort (Co. Wicklow) - An extensive hillfort that provides evidence of long-term settlement and usage from the Bronze Age through the Iron Age. The site consists of multiple defensive walls and enclosures, with archaeological evidence of habitation, including pottery, tools, and metalwork.
Knockaulin (Dún Ailinne) (Co. Kildare) - Another important ceremonial site, often compared to Tara in its significance during the Iron Age. The site includes a large earthen mound and evidence of extensive ritual activity, including feasting and the construction of large wooden structures.
Tlachtga (Hill of Ward) (Co. Meath) - A ceremonial site linked to the Celtic festival of Samhain, which marked the end of the harvest season and the beginning of winter. The site includes a circular earthwork enclosure and evidence of ritual fires and gatherings.
Dunseverick Castle (Co. Antrim) - Though later associated with early medieval history, the site has Iron Age origins and was an important coastal fort. Remnants of the fortifications are visible, and the site offers insights into the strategic importance of coastal defenses during the Iron Age.
Cahercommaun (Co. Clare) - A notable stone fort built on the edge of a cliff, demonstrating the defensive strategies of the time. Te fort includes multiple layers of walls and evidence of domestic buildings within the enclosure.
Carrowmore Megalithic Cemetery (Co. Sligo) - While primarily a Neolithic site, Carrowmore contains Iron Age burials, illustrating continuity in the use of ancient sites for ceremonial purposes. The site contains over 30 passage tombs and burial cairns, with some evidence of Iron Age activity.
Iron Age sacrificial practices in Ireland
Sacrifices were integral to the spiritual and societal life of the time, reflecting beliefs in the divine, the supernatural, and the importance of maintaining balance and favor with the gods. While direct evidence of ritual sacrifices is somewhat limited, archaeological and historical sources provide insights into these practices.
Iron Age bog bodies are remarkably well-preserved human remains discovered in peat bogs, primarily in Ireland and northern Europe. The preservation in bogs is due to the unique conditions of peat, which inhibits decay and preserves organic material. Found in Ireland in 2003, bog body of the Clonycavan Man dates to around 392-201 BC, in a bog in County Meath. The Dobharcarn Man, also found in County Meath in 1955, is dated from 300 BC and was found with his hands tied and showing signs of violent death.
Sources
- Zaczek, I .The Art of the Celts, Origins, History, and Culture. Parkgate Books .London. 1998.
- Davies, A.H. History, The Definitive Visual Guide. Dorling Kindersley. London 2007
- Ó hÓgáin, D. The Celts, A History. The Collins Press. Cork. 2002
- Bardon, J. The History of Ulster. The Blackstaff Press. Belfast. 2005 edition
- National Museum of Ireland Ard Mhúsaemna hÉireann.
- Bradley, R. The Prehistory of Britain and Ireland. Cambridge University Press. 2007
